Poli. Sci. Rabbit Hole Starter Kit (AI-assisted)
h/t Curtis Yarvin
According to Aristotle, there are three forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.
Monarchy: This is the form of government in which the power is held by a single individual, known as a monarch. Aristotle believed that monarchy could be a good form of government if the monarch was virtuous and ruled in the best interest of the people. However, he also recognized that monarchy could easily degenerate into tyranny if the monarch was selfish and corrupt.
Aristocracy: This is the form of government in which the power is held by a small group of people, known as the aristocracy. Aristotle believed that aristocracy could be a good form of government if the aristocracy was composed of virtuous and knowledgeable individuals who ruled in the best interest of the people. However, he also recognized that aristocracy could easily degenerate into oligarchy if the aristocracy became corrupt and self-serving.
Democracy: This is the form of government in which the power is held by the people. Aristotle believed that democracy could be a good form of government if the people were virtuous and knowledgeable. However, he also recognized that democracy could easily degenerate into mob rule if the people were uneducated and easily swayed by demagogues.
Aristotle believed that the best form of government was a mixed government, which combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He believed that this type of government would be able to balance the strengths and weaknesses of each form of government, and would be able to provide the best possible protection for the rights and welfare of the citizens.
Aristotle's views on politics were not only limited to these three forms of government, but it was part of a larger set of ideas about politics and the best way to organize a society.
The Pax Romana was a period of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire that lasted from 27 BCE to 180 CE. It was a time of prosperity and territorial expansion for the empire, during which Roman law and culture spread throughout the Mediterranean world.
The Pax Romana was brought about by the policies of the Roman emperor Augustus, who came to power after a period of civil war and instability known as the Roman Republic. Augustus was able to establish a stable and efficient government through a combination of military force, political skill, and patronage.
During this period, the Roman army was able to maintain peace and order in the empire through a network of roads, forts, and legions. This allowed for the safe movement of people and goods throughout the empire, and allowed the spread of Roman culture and language.
The Pax Romana was also a time of relative prosperity for the empire, as trade and commerce flourished, and cities and towns grew and prospered. This period of prosperity and stability allowed for the development of art, literature, and architecture, which would have lasting cultural and architectural impact on Europe.
It was also a time of relative religious tolerance as well. Although Roman state religion was polytheistic, it allowed various cults and religions to be practiced as long as it does not disrupt the peace or go against the laws of the state.
The Pax Romana ended with the crisis of the Third century, as a combination of invasions by barbarian tribes, internal political turmoil, and economic instability led to a period of instability and decline for the empire.
Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He was appointed governor of the Roman province of Gaul (modern-day France) in 58 BCE, and during his tenure there he led a series of successful military campaigns against the Gauls, Britons, and Germans. He used his military successes and the wealth he acquired to build a power base in Rome.
In 49 BCE, Caesar defied the Roman Senate's order to disband his army and return to Rome, instead crossing the Rubicon River with his army and starting a civil war. He emerged victorious and established himself as the de facto leader of the Roman Republic.
Caesar implemented a number of political, social, and economic reforms during his time as leader of Rome. He introduced a number of measures aimed at relieving the plight of the poor and landless, such as canceling debts, distributing land, and creating jobs. He also reformed the Roman calendar, introduced the concept of the leap year and the modern system of counting years.
In terms of foreign policy, Caesar sought to expand the Roman Empire, conquering Egypt and other territories in the Near East and Africa. He also sought to strengthen Roman authority in the provinces and to impose Roman culture and government on the conquered peoples.
Caesar's rule was marked by a strong centralization of power, with him being the main decision maker in the state. He also dissolved the Roman Republic's traditional political structures and institutions, such as the Roman Senate, and established himself as the leader of Rome. He was assassinated on the Ides of March 44 BCE by a group of senators who saw his power as a threat to the Republic.
Augustus Caesar, also known as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor and the adopted son of Julius Caesar. He came to power after Julius Caesar's death in 44 BCE, and he ruled Rome as its first emperor from 27 BCE until his death in 14 CE.
After Julius Caesar's death, Augustus was able to consolidate power and establish himself as the leader of Rome by defeating his rivals in a series of civil wars and by forming alliances with key figures in the Roman Republic. He was able to gain control of the Roman Republic's traditional political structures, such as the Roman Senate, and establish himself as the leader of Rome.
Augustus' main goal as ruler was to restore stability and order to Rome after the tumultuous period of the Roman Republic. To do this, he implemented a number of political, social, and economic reforms. He reformed the Roman legal system, established an efficient and centralized bureaucracy, and promoted policies aimed at increasing the population and promoting moral virtues. He also initiated a number of public works and building projects to enhance the infrastructure of Rome.
In terms of foreign policy, Augustus sought to expand the Roman Empire and to strengthen Roman authority in the provinces. He led a number of military campaigns, conquering territories in Spain, Egypt, and other parts of the Mediterranean. He also sought to impose Roman culture and government on the conquered peoples and to strengthen the Roman military's presence in the provinces.
Augustus' rule was marked by a strong centralization of power, with him being the main decision maker in the state. He also dissolved the Roman Republic's traditional political structures and institutions, such as the Roman Senate, and established himself as the leader of Rome. He also gave himself the title of "Princeps" which means "first citizen" to indicate that he was not a king and not above the Roman Republic's traditional political structures and institutions, but the head of it.
The "Five Good Emperors" is a term used to describe a succession of five Roman emperors who, according to most historians, are considered to have been effective leaders, who worked to improve the lives of the Roman citizens and to expand the Roman Empire. These emperors were:
Nerva (r. 96-98 AD): He was the first of the Five Good Emperors, and is known for his efforts to restore stability and order to the empire after the tumultuous reign of the previous emperor, Domitian. He also implemented a number of reforms aimed at improving the lives of the Roman citizens.
Trajan (r. 98-117 AD): He was an accomplished military leader who expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent and is also known for his public works and his legal reforms, which improved the lives of the Roman citizens.
Hadrian (r. 117-138 AD): He is known for his efforts to stabilize and defend the empire's borders, as well as for his cultural and architectural patronage. He also implemented a number of administrative and legal reforms, which helped to improve the lives of the Roman citizens.
Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161 AD): He continued the policies of his predecessor, Hadrian, and is known for his peaceful and just rule. He also implemented a number of social and economic reforms aimed at helping the Roman citizens.
Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 AD): He was a philosopher and a Stoic, he is known for his efforts to maintain the stability and prosperity of the empire during a period of great internal turmoil.
The Venetian Republic was a sovereign state that existed in what is now northeastern Italy from the late 700s to 1797. The city of Venice was its capital and largest city.
The Venetian Republic was a maritime republic, and its economy was based on trade and commerce, particularly on the Mediterranean sea. The Republic had a powerful navy, which helped to protect its merchant ships and to expand its trade and commerce.
The government of the Venetian Republic was a mixed government, composed of a doge, who was the chief executive, a council of nobles and a popular assembly. The doge was elected by the council of nobles, and held office for life. The council of nobles was composed of the most prominent members of the Republic's nobility and was responsible for making laws and for advising the doge. The popular assembly was composed of all citizens of the Republic, and had the power to approve or reject laws passed by the council of nobles.
The Venetian Republic was also known for its art, architecture, and culture. It was a center of the Renaissance and attracted many artists, writers, and scholars. Many of the city's buildings, such as the Basilica di San Marco and the Palazzo Ducale, are considered masterpieces of medieval and Renaissance architecture and art.
The Venetian Republic was also known for its diplomacy and its ability to maintain its independence in the face of powerful neighboring states such as the Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1797, the Republic was conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte and was dissolved, ending over 1000 years of independence.
Norman Sicily refers to the period of Sicilian history from the late 11th century to the early 13th century, when the island of Sicily was ruled by the Normans. The Normans were a group of Vikings from northern France and were known for their military prowess and their expansionist policies.
In 1061, the Normans, led by Roger I, conquered Sicily from the Muslims and established a powerful state on the island. They established a centralized government and created a powerful Norman army. They also built castles and fortified cities throughout the island, which helped to defend the island from attacks by the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire.
The Normans also introduced many cultural and administrative innovations to Sicily, including a new legal system, which was based on the Roman law. They also established a system of county government and introduced the concept of feudalism, which helped to organize the island's society and economy.
During this period, the Normans also brought many immigrants to Sicily, including Arabs, Byzantines, and Lombards, which helped to create a diverse and cosmopolitan society on the island. They also encouraged the development of a vibrant economic life, particularly in agriculture and commerce.
The Normans also played an important role in the history of the Mediterranean by fostering the cultural, economic and diplomatic exchange between Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, which helped to create a cross-cultural society and a melting pot of different influences.
Queen Elizabeth I and Queen Elizabeth II are both members of the British royal family who have held the title of Queen of England, but they lived in different historical periods and had very different experiences as monarchs.
Queen Elizabeth I, also known as Elizabeth Tudor, was the Queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603. She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, and was the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. She was known as the "Virgin Queen" because she never married. During her reign, Elizabeth faced several challenges, including threats from Catholic powers in Europe, rebellions in Ireland, and economic difficulties. Despite these challenges, Elizabeth was able to maintain the stability and security of the realm and is considered one of the greatest monarchs in English history. She was known for her strong leadership, her intelligence, and her ability to navigate the complex political landscape of her time.
Queen Elizabeth II, on the other hand, has been the Queen of England since 1952 and is still reigning today. She is the longest-reigning current monarch in the world. She is the daughter of King George VI and the current head of the British royal family. During her reign, she has seen many changes in the world, including the dissolution of the British Empire and the rise of the United Kingdom as a constitutional monarchy. She has also witnessed the evolution of the Commonwealth, the Cold War, and many technological, social and cultural changes. She has been known for her sense of duty, her dedication to her role and her ability to adapt to the changing times.
The reign of Queen Elizabeth I was characterized by several notable features:
Political stability: Elizabeth was able to maintain the stability and security of the realm during her reign, despite facing several challenges, including threats from Catholic powers in Europe, rebellions in Ireland, and economic difficulties.
Cultural flourishing: Elizabethan England saw a cultural flourishing, particularly in literature, theater, and the arts. William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser were among the notable authors of the time.
Economic expansion: Elizabeth's reign saw the beginning of the expansion of England's overseas trade, particularly in the form of privateering, which helped to generate significant wealth and economic growth.
Religious conflict: Elizabeth I was a protestant, during her reign the Church of England was established as the official state religion, but the country was still deeply divided on religious matters, with many people adhering to the Catholic faith.
Exploration and expansion: Elizabethan England was a time of exploration and expansion, as English navigators and traders set out to discover new trade routes and establish colonies in the New World.
Military expansion: Elizabeth I built a powerful navy to protect the country's trade and to assert England's naval power. This led to several military conflicts, including the Anglo-Spanish War, which ultimately ended with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Fashion and style: Elizabethan era is also known for its fashion, which was heavily influenced by the Tudor dynasty, featured elaborate and ornate clothing, often with a focus on ruffs and corsets for women and doublets and hose for men.
William Shakespeare lived in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, which was a time of significant political and social change in England. The politics of his time were marked by religious conflict and the struggle between the monarchy and various factions vying for power, such as the nobility and the rising merchant class.
It is difficult to say what Shakespeare's personal politics were, as there is no definitive evidence of his beliefs or affiliations. However, many scholars have interpreted his plays and poems as reflecting the political and social issues of his time.
Shakespeare's plays often depict conflicts between different groups and individuals, such as the struggles between kings and noblemen in plays like "Richard II" and "Henry IV," and the conflicts between different religions and factions in plays like "The Merchant of Venice."
His plays also often depict the struggles of the common people, such as the portrayal of the lower classes in plays like "The Taming of the Shrew" and "A Midsummer Night's Dream."
Shakespeare was also writing during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and King James I, during this time the monarchy and the Church of England were dominant institutions. His plays portray the monarchy in a positive light, depicting the ruler as the protector of the nation and the source of stability and order. The monarchy is often portrayed as a benevolent, even divine figure, who represents the common good and acts as a mediator between different social classes.
It is also believed that Shakespeare was relatively conservative in his views, and his works show a respect for tradition and authority. He also did not criticize the monarchy or the Church of England directly, which could have been a political move to avoid censorship and stay in good standing with the powerful figures of his time.
[The Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship is the belief that Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, was the true author of the plays and poems traditionally attributed to William Shakespeare. This theory was first proposed in the early 20th century, and it has been advocated by a number of literary scholars and enthusiasts over the years.
Advocates of the Oxfordian theory argue that de Vere had the education, background, and experience necessary to write the plays attributed to Shakespeare, and that there is little concrete evidence linking Shakespeare to the plays. They also point to similarities between the life and experiences of de Vere and the characters and themes found in the plays and poems attributed to Shakespeare.]
Samuel Johnson, also known as "Dictionary Johnson," was a prominent figure in 18th-century England and is best known for his dictionary of the English language and his various literary works. He was a Tory and a strong supporter of the British monarchy and the Anglican Church.
Johnson believed in the traditional social order, where monarchy and the Church of England played an important role in maintaining stability and continuity. He was critical of the radicalism and revolutionary ideas that were prevalent during his time, and he saw the French Revolution as a destructive force that threatened to destroy the traditional values and institutions of society.
Johnson was also a strong advocate for the rights of the poor and he supported the establishment of charities to help alleviate the suffering of the poor. He was also a vocal opponent of slavery and he used his writings to speak out against the practice.
He believed in a strong central government, a position that led him to reject the political radicalism of his time, as well as the arguments of the American Revolution. He supported the idea of a balanced and constitutional monarchy, and opposed the ideas of democracy and the separation of powers.
In summary, Samuel Johnson was a Tory and held traditional views on politics, society, and religion. He was critical of radicalism and the French Revolution, and supported the monarchy, the Church of England, and the rights of the poor.
Noah Webster, best known for his influential dictionary of the English language, held strong political views and was an active participant in the political and cultural debates of his time.
Webster was a Federalist, which was one of the two dominant political parties in the United States during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Federalists were known for their support of a strong national government and the protection of the rights of property and the wealthy. They were opposed to the Democratic-Republican party which sought more rights for states and individuals.
He was a strong supporter of the U.S. Constitution, and he believed in the importance of a strong national government to preserve the unity and stability of the country. He also believed in the need for a strong, centralized banking system and a stable currency to support economic growth and development.
Webster was also a strong supporter of American nationalism, he believed that a common language, culture, and identity were necessary for the young nation to grow and thrive. He therefore supported the use of American English, and he believed that it was important to create American-specific spellings, pronunciations, and vocabulary to distance the language from British English.
Webster also held conservative views on social and cultural issues. He was a Christian, and he believed in the importance of religion in maintaining a moral and virtuous society. He was also a strong advocate for traditional gender roles and believed that women should focus on domestic responsibilities and child-rearing.
In summary, Noah Webster was a Federalist who believed in strong national government, protection of property rights, the importance of a common American culture and language, the promotion of American English and traditional social and cultural values.
Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great, was the King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. He was a strong and ambitious ruler who is considered one of the most enlightened monarchs of his time.
During his reign, Frederick sought to modernize and expand the Prussian state, both militarily and economically. He built up the Prussian army and made it one of the most powerful in Europe, and he also implemented a number of economic and administrative reforms that helped to strengthen the Prussian economy.
Frederick was also known for his patronage of the arts and sciences. He was an avid patron of the arts and sciences, and he attracted a number of leading thinkers and artists to his court, including Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
In terms of foreign policy, Frederick engaged in a number of military conflicts, including the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War, which helped to establish Prussia as a major European power. He also sought to strengthen Prussia's alliances with other European states, particularly through diplomacy and alliances.
He implemented a number of reforms to the government and administration of Prussia. One of these was the establishment of a unicameral legislature, known as the General Directory.
The General Directory was established in 1751 and was made up of representatives from the different regions of Prussia. These representatives were appointed by Frederick and were responsible for making laws and managing the government's finances. The General Directory replaced the previous system of government, which was made up of separate estates, each with their own powers and responsibilities.
The General Directory was designed to be a more efficient and centralized form of government, with the goal of streamlining the legislative process and making the government more responsive to the needs of the people. However, the General Directory was not a representative body in the modern sense, as it was not elected by the people, but rather appointed by the king.
The General Directory was also meant to be a check on the power of the nobility, who had traditionally held a great deal of power in Prussia. Frederick believed that the General Directory would help to keep the nobles in check and prevent them from undermining his authority.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its associated wars. He was born on the island of Corsica in 1769 and died in exile on the island of Saint Helena in 1821. He began his military career in the French Revolutionary army, quickly rising through the ranks to become a general. He became the first consul of the Republic in 1799 and later, in 1804, he declared himself Emperor of the French.
During his time as leader of France, Napoleon implemented a number of significant political, social and economic reforms that had a lasting impact on France and Europe. He established a new legal code, known as the Napoleonic Code, which became the basis for legal systems in many countries around the world. He also reorganized the French government and administration, centralizing power in the hands of the state.
In terms of foreign policy, Napoleon sought to expand the French Empire, engaging in a number of military conflicts and eventually conquering much of Europe. He was eventually defeated in 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo, and exiled to the island of Saint Helena.
Bonapartism is a political ideology that is associated with Napoleon Bonaparte and his legacy. It is characterized by strong centralization of power, the emphasis on a strong leader or "strongman" figure, and the promotion of nationalism and militarist ideas. Bonapartism also tends to be characterized by a strong emphasis on state intervention in the economy, and a focus on modernization and industrialization. The term has also been used to describe similar political movements and figures that have emerged in other countries and contexts, such as Latin America and Africa.
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) was a French diplomat, philosopher, and writer who was an important figure in the counter-revolutionary movement in France during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He is best known for his works on politics, religion, and the nature of authority.
De Maistre was deeply critical of the Enlightenment and the ideas of the French Revolution, which he saw as a threat to traditional social and political order. He believed that the Revolution's emphasis on reason and individualism had led to a rejection of tradition and authority, and that this had led to the chaos and violence that characterized the Revolution.
De Maistre was also a strong advocate of the monarchical and religious authority, he believed that the monarchy and the Church were essential for maintaining social order and that the Revolution had led to the weakening of these institutions.
In his work, De Maistre argued that authority is necessary for the preservation of society, and that it must be based on tradition and divine right. He believed that the only legitimate form of government is a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch is guided by a sense of divine mission and protected by a powerful and independent aristocracy.
De Maistre's ideas have been seen as an influence on later political movements such as traditionalism, integralism, and authoritarianism. His works continue to be studied and debated today, particularly for their perspectives on the relationship between authority, tradition, and society.
In summary, Joseph de Maistre was a counter-revolutionary thinker who criticized the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, and advocated for the preservation of traditional social and political order through monarchy and religion. He believed that authority must be based on tradition and divine right, and that a constitutional monarchy guided by a sense of divine mission is the only legitimate form of government.
Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) was a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist and historian during the Victorian era. He was a leading figure in the intellectual and cultural movement of his time. He is considered one of the most important social commentators of the 19th century.
Carlyle's most famous and influential work is "The French Revolution: A History" (1837), which sought to explain the causes and effects of the French Revolution and its political and social repercussions. This book had a significant impact on the historical perception of the French Revolution and established Carlyle as a major historical figure.
Carlyle's writing was characterized by a distinctive style that combined a passionate and emotional approach with a biting wit and sarcasm. He was also a strong critic of the Industrial Revolution, which he saw as a dehumanizing force that was leading to the destruction of traditional society.
He was also known for his influence on the idea of "hero worship" where he considered that the history of the world is made by the great men, who are the "heroes" that drive the course of events. He believed that history could be understood by studying the lives of these great men and that this would reveal the hidden forces that shape the world.
Carlyle's ideas and writing style were highly influential during his lifetime and continue to be studied and debated today. His legacy and influence on 19th-century thought, historical writing, and literary style has been significant.
The Wide Awakes were a political organization that was active during the American presidential campaign of 1860. They were a youth-oriented group that was created to support the campaign of Abraham Lincoln, who was running as the candidate of the newly formed Republican Party. The group was known for their distinctive wide-brimmed hats and their energetic and enthusiastic support for Lincoln and the Republican cause.
The Wide Awakes were organized on a local level, with chapters in cities and towns across the United States. They were composed mostly of young men, but also included women and children. The group's main activities included parades, torchlight marches, and rallies, which helped to generate enthusiasm and support for Lincoln's campaign.
The Wide Awakes were known for their energetic and enthusiastic support for Lincoln and the Republican cause. They played an important role in the campaign by drawing attention to Lincoln and his message and by mobilizing support among young people, who were seen as a key constituency in the election.
The Wide Awakes were credited with helping to secure Lincoln's victory in the election of 1860, which was a critical moment in American history, as it marked the first time that a Republican had been elected president. The group's success in organizing young people and energizing the campaign was seen as a model for future political campaigns and is often cited as an early example of modern campaign techniques.
In summary, The Wide Awakes were a political organization that supported the campaign of Abraham Lincoln in the presidential election of 1860. They were a youth-oriented group that was known for their distinctive wide-brimmed hats and their energetic and enthusiastic support for Lincoln and the Republican cause. They played an important role in the campaign by drawing attention to Lincoln and his message and by mobilizing support among young people, which was seen as a key constituency in the election. They were credited with helping to secure Lincoln's victory in the election of 1860.
James Anthony Froude (1818-1894) was an English historian, biographer, and theologian in the Victorian era. He was one of the most well-known and controversial figures of his time. His main historical works and popular literature were on the history of the British Empire, Christianity and biography of historical figures.
Froude's most famous and controversial work was "The History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada" (12 vols. 1856–70), which attempted to provide a comprehensive history of England during this period. The work was both praised and criticized for its critical stance towards the English Reformation, and for its portrayal of the Elizabethan era.
Froude was also known for his biography of Thomas Carlyle, which was published in 1882, where he gave an account of Carlyle's life and personality based on the letters and papers he had left behind.
Froude's writings have been described as having "a distinctive mixture of highmindedness and contempt for the middle-class world" and have been considered part of the "Mid-Victorian crisis of faith." His work continues to be studied by scholars today, particularly for its perspective on Victorian society and its attitude towards religion.
He also has been criticized for his works promoting eugenics, advocating racial purity and imperialistic views on colonialism. As a result, his popularity and reputation has diminished over time but his historical works remains a noteworthy contributions in the field of 19th-century British history.
The Italian School of Political Science is a tradition of political thought that emerged in Italy during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is characterized by a focus on political institutions and the study of how they shape political behavior and outcomes.
The Italian School has several key ideas and concepts, some of the most important ones are:
Corporatism: This concept refers to the idea that society is composed of different "corporations" or groups, such as labor unions, business associations, and professional organizations, that represent different interests and sectors. The Italian School argued that these corporations play a central role in shaping politics and that they should be included in the political process to ensure that the needs and interests of all groups are represented.
Historical institutionalism: This approach emphasizes the importance of historical context and institutions in shaping political behavior and outcomes. The Italian School argued that institutions, such as political parties and constitutional structures, have a powerful influence on politics and that they must be understood in the context of their historical development.
Political culture: The Italian school also emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural and social context in which politics takes place. They argue that political culture, including values, beliefs, and norms, shapes political behavior and outcomes, and should be studied in order to understand how politics works in a given society.
Elitism: The Italian School also supports the idea that politics is dominated by a small group of elites, rather than by the general population. They argue that these elites, composed of politicians, bureaucrats, and other powerful actors, hold significant power and influence in politics and that they are the key actors in shaping political outcomes.
Political economy: The Italian School of Political Science also pays attention to the relationship between politics and economy, analyzing how economic interests, policies and performance influence political systems, actors and institutions.
Overall, the Italian School of Political Science offers a holistic and nuanced perspective on politics, emphasizing the importance of institutions, culture, history, and social structure in shaping political behavior and outcomes.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) was an Italian political thinker, historian, and writer, who is best known for his work "The Prince", a treatise on the nature of power, political rule and the acquisition and exercise of power.
Machiavelli's political views are often described as "Machiavellianism", a term that has come to refer to the principles of cunning, deceit and the use of power to achieve political ends. He believed that political rule is a necessity and that the preservation of the state is the ultimate goal for any ruler.
Machiavelli believed that the most important duty of a ruler is to maintain the security and stability of the state, and that this duty takes precedence over all other considerations, including morality. He argued that rulers must be willing to use any means necessary to achieve this goal, including deceit, force, and even cruelty if necessary. He also believed that the ruler should be willing to be feared rather than loved.
Machiavelli also argued that the political stability of a state depends on the balance of power among the different social classes and that the ruler should be prepared to use force to maintain this balance. He believed that a strong, centralized government is necessary to maintain order and stability.
Machiavelli also believed that the role of the ruler is to be the "father" of the state, providing for the welfare of the citizens, but also imposing discipline and order when necessary. He also believed that a ruler should be willing to make difficult and unpopular decisions if they are necessary for the preservation of the state.
In summary, Machiavelli's political views can be described as a pragmatic and realistic approach to politics, where the preservation of the state is the ultimate goal of any ruler, and that any means necessary, including deceit, force, and even cruelty, can be used to achieve this goal. He also believed in a strong centralized government and the balance of power among social classes. Machiavelli's ideas have been influential in political thought and are still studied and debated today.
Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891) was a French poet, who is considered one of the most important and influential figures of the Symbolist movement, a literary and artistic movement that sought to express the innermost feelings and emotions through the use of symbols, metaphor, and imagery.
Rimbaud began writing poetry at a young age and quickly established himself as a major figure in the French literary scene. His first published work, "La Saison en Enfer" (A Season in Hell) was published in 1873, and it was a turning point in modern poetry, marked by its unconventional style, its use of free verse, and its vivid and evocative imagery.
Rimbaud's poetry is often characterized by its intense, visionary, and often disturbing imagery. He wrote about the innermost feelings and desires of the human soul and the darker aspects of human nature. His poems are full of symbolism and metaphor, and they often explore themes of love, desire, and the search for meaning and transcendence.
Rimbaud also lived a tumultuous and adventurous life, he had a restless spirit, he traveled extensively and had a tumultuous relationship with fellow poet Paul Verlaine. His poetry was heavily influenced by his experiences and the places he visited, which included Africa, where he spent time as a trader.
Rimbaud's poetry had a profound and lasting influence on the literary and artistic movements of the 20th century, particularly Surrealism and the Beat Generation. His work continues to be widely read and studied today and he is considered one of the most innovative and influential poets of the 19th century.
Arthur Rimbaud traveled to Ethiopia (then known as Abyssinia) in 1881, where he worked as a gunrunner and a trader. He arrived in the country during a time of political turmoil and civil war. He joined the army of Ras Alula, a powerful warlord, who later became one of the country's emperor. He stayed in the country for several months and participated in several military campaigns.
Rimbaud's time in Ethiopia had a significant impact on his life and his poetry. His experiences in the country, which included encounters with different cultures, landscapes, and people, deeply influenced his worldview and his understanding of the world. The country's landscapes and culture, as well as the violence and political turmoil he witnessed, became a source of inspiration for his later poetry, which is marked by its vivid and evocative imagery.
Rimbaud's time in Ethiopia was also marked by hardship, illness, and danger. He suffered from dysentery and other illnesses, and he was nearly killed in a battle. He also had to face the harsh realities of the slave trade that was still taking place in the country, which deeply shocked and disturbed him.
Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) was a Russian jurist, statesman, and advisor to Tsar Alexander III and Tsar Nicholas II. He served as the Procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895, which made him the highest official of the Russian Orthodox Church and the chief legal advisor to the Tsar on religious matters.
Pobedonostsev was a conservative and a strong advocate of autocracy and the traditional social and political order. He saw the Orthodox Church as the foundation of the Russian state and the moral authority of the Tsar. He believed that the Church should be closely aligned with the state and that it should play a central role in shaping the moral and cultural life of the country.
Pobedonostsev was also a strong critic of democracy, secularism, and liberal ideas, which he saw as a threat to the traditional social and political order. He believed that the Russian state should be based on a strong centralized government, the rule of law, and the protection of traditional values and institutions.
He had a significant influence on the Tsars Alexander III and Nicholas II, and in many ways, was the architect of the policies that helped to shape the Russian state during the last decades of the Tsarist era.
The Manhattan Project was the code name for the secret U.S. government program during World War II to develop the first nuclear weapons. The project was led by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), who initiated the program in 1939, in response to reports that Germany was also working on developing nuclear weapons.
Roosevelt began the project by appointing physicist and engineer, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves as the military leader of the project and physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer as the scientific leader. He also provided funding for the project through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Manhattan Project was run as a top-secret operation, with tight security measures in place to protect the work and the identities of those involved. The project was divided into several different sites, with the main research and development taking place at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, under the direction of Oppenheimer.
FDR also established the Manhattan Engineer District (MED), which was responsible for the construction and operation of the facilities required for the project, including the Hanford Engineer Works in Washington state, where the first plutonium was produced.
FDR also appointed a Scientific Panel to advise him on the development of the bomb and its use in the war. The panel was composed of some of the most prominent scientists of the time, including Einstein, Oppenheimer, and Fermi.
FDR was informed of the progress of the Manhattan Project throughout the war, and he was kept informed of the development of the bomb and its potential use in
Ernst Jünger (1895-1998) was a German writer, poet, and philosopher, who is best known for his memoirs and reflections on his experiences as a soldier during World War I. He was also a prominent figure in the conservative and nationalist movements in Germany in the 20th century.
Jünger served as an officer in the German army during World War I and his experiences during the war had a profound impact on his life and work. He wrote several books about his experiences, including the highly acclaimed "Storm of Steel," which provides a vivid and intense account of the brutal realities of trench warfare.
Jünger's writing is characterized by its focus on heroism, sacrifice, and the experience of war. He has been considered as a writer who celebrated the warrior spirit, the sense of comradeship and the ideals of heroism, and has been criticized for his glorification of war and violence.
After the war, Jünger became involved in the conservative and nationalist movements in Germany, and his writing reflected his belief in the importance of tradition, discipline, and the need for strong leadership. He was also critical of the Weimar Republic and the rise of communism and socialism in Europe.
Jünger's ideas and writing have been both praised and criticized, and are still widely debated today. Some critics have seen him as a romantic and reactionary figure, while others have praised him for his insights into the nature of war and the human experience.
Bella Dodd was an American communist and former high-ranking official of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) during the 1930s and 1940s. She was a prominent speaker and organizer for the party, and she served as a member of the National Committee of the CPUSA during this time.
Dodd became disillusioned with the CPUSA in the late 1940s, and she left the party in 1949. She then became a vocal critic of the party and of communism in general. She testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1952, and she also wrote a book, "School of Darkness," in which she detailed her experiences within the party and her reasons for leaving it.
In her book, Dodd alleged that the Communist Party had infiltrated and infiltrated many institutions, including schools and universities, labor unions, and the government, to spread their ideologies and gain control. She also alleged that the party had placed a large number of secret members, who were not known to the public or to party leaders, in positions of influence in these institutions.
Dodd's testimony and book caused a significant stir in the United States at the time, and it was widely covered in the media. Her allegations were used as evidence by those who were seeking to crack down on communist subversion in the United States during the Cold War era.
Lee Kuan Yew (1923-2015) was the first Prime Minister of Singapore, serving in the position from 1959 to 1990. He is widely considered the founding father of modern Singapore, and he played a central role in the country's political and economic development.
Lee led the People's Action Party (PAP) to victory in the 1959 general election, and during his time as Prime Minister, he oversaw the transformation of Singapore from a developing country to one of the most prosperous and developed nations in Southeast Asia.
One of Lee's main priorities as Prime Minister was economic development, and he implemented policies aimed at attracting foreign investment and promoting economic growth. He also emphasized the importance of education and training in order to build a skilled workforce.
Under Lee's leadership, Singapore also experienced rapid urbanization and modernization, and he played a central role in the development of the country's infrastructure and public housing.
Lee was also known for his strong and authoritarian leadership style, he had a zero tolerance policy towards opposition and dissent, which led to the restriction of civil liberties and the suppression of political opposition.
Despite this, Lee's leadership is widely credited with the development of Singapore and he is considered one of the most successful leaders in the world. He was a pragmatic and visionary leader who was committed to the development of his country, and his policies and leadership style continue to shape Singapore today.
Paul Kagame has been the President of Rwanda since 2000, and he has played a central role in the country's political and economic development since the end of the Rwandan genocide in 1994.
One of Kagame's main priorities as President has been the reconstruction and development of the country after the devastating genocide, which killed an estimated 800,000 people. He has overseen a process of national reconciliation and healing, and has worked to promote unity and social cohesion among the population.
Kagame has also implemented a number of economic policies aimed at promoting growth and development. These policies have been successful in reducing poverty, increasing access to education and healthcare, and boosting economic growth. Under his leadership, Rwanda has become one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa, and is considered a model for other developing countries.
Kagame has also been known for his strong leadership style and the promotion of good governance and transparency. He has implemented policies aimed at reducing corruption and promoting the rule of law, and has been credited with building a stable and secure environment in which businesses can thrive.
Kagame has also been recognized for his efforts to promote gender equality and women's rights, and for his efforts to protect the environment and promote sustainable development.