In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-1788), Edward Gibbon, at the time of the founding of these here United States of America that I am writing in, says this of Aksum:
Fascinating. I took the liberty of consulting Claude.AI on your article, and got this response:—
# The Aksumite Church and Kingdom: A Revised Historical Perspective
Your inquiry touches upon one of the most fascinating yet understudied early Christian kingdoms that served as a crucial nexus between Africa, the Mediterranean world, and the Arabian Peninsula. The Aksumite perspective on their history presents a significant counternarrative to European historiography that has often mischaracterized the origins and nature of this sophisticated civilization.
## Origins and Identity
The endonym "Aksum" indeed has obscure origins, though linguistic evidence suggests indigenous African roots rather than Arabian importation. Edward Gibbon's characterization reflects the Eurocentric biases of 18th-century historiography, which struggled to reconcile African civilizations with their preconceived notions of cultural development.
H.E. Negash's critique correctly identifies the fundamental error in Gibbon's account. Archaeological and linguistic evidence strongly supports the view that Aksum represented an indigenous African civilization with its own cultural traditions. The Ge'ez language, while Semitic, shows distinctive features that suggest a long independent development rather than recent importation.
Recent scholarship by Phillipson (2012) has demonstrated that the material culture of Aksum shows continuity with earlier indigenous developments in the Ethiopian highlands, particularly in monumental architecture and agricultural practices. The famous stelae of Aksum represent a uniquely African architectural tradition without direct parallels in Arabia.
## Aksumite Christianity and Regional Influence
The Aksumite conversion to Christianity in the 4th century CE under King Ezana represents one of the earliest state adoptions of Christianity, predating many European conversions. The Aksumite church maintained distinctive liturgical and theological traditions that continue in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church today.
The account of Aksumite intervention in Ḥimyar (Yemen) deserves particular attention. The Jewish king Dhu Nuwas (Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar) did indeed persecute Christians in Najran around 523 CE, as attested in both Byzantine and Syriac sources. The Aksumite king Kaleb (also known as Ella Asbeha) intervened, defeating Dhu Nuwas and establishing an Aksumite presence in southern Arabia.
This intervention is significant for several reasons:
1. It demonstrates the considerable military and naval capabilities of the Aksumite kingdom
2. It reflects the kingdom's self-identification as a Christian power with responsibilities toward co-religionists
3. It challenges the conventional narrative of unidirectional cultural influence from Arabia to Africa
The Martyrs of Najran are commemorated in the Ethiopian Synaxarium on Ḥedār 24, and their story is preserved in multiple ancient sources, including the "Book of the Himyarites" and John of Ephesus's "Ecclesiastical History."
## Queen of Sheba Tradition
The reference to the Queen of Sheba as a legitimizing ancestral figure for Aksumite rulers is particularly significant. This tradition, embodied in the Ethiopian national epic Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings), represents a sophisticated political theology that connected Ethiopia to biblical history.
While modern scholarship cannot confirm the historical veracity of the Queen of Sheba narrative, its cultural significance cannot be overstated. The tradition provided Aksumite and later Ethiopian rulers with a claim to Solomonic descent and positioned Ethiopia as a chosen nation within salvation history.
In the Kebra Nagast, the Queen of Sheba (Makeda in Ethiopian tradition) bears Solomon a son, Menelik I, who later brings the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. This narrative served to establish Ethiopia as a new Israel, a concept that resonated powerfully with Ethiopian Christian self-understanding.
## Aksumite Influence on Arabia
The account of Aksumite colonization of southern Arabia is supported by archaeological evidence. Aksumite coins and inscriptions have been found in Yemen, and South Arabian inscriptions record the presence of Aksumite governors. This period of Aksumite control lasted until the Persian Sasanian conquest around 570 CE.
The fall of Aksumite control in Arabia roughly coincides with the birth of Muhammad, suggesting that Ethiopian Christianity may have been one of the religious influences on early Islam. The Quran itself mentions Christian Ethiopia positively, and the Prophet Muhammad is said to have instructed his early followers to seek refuge in Ethiopia from persecution in Mecca, reportedly stating, "Go to Abyssinia, for there is a king who permits no one to be wronged."
## Conclusion
The Aksumite perspective on their history, as articulated by scholars like Negash, represents an important corrective to earlier Eurocentric narratives. Archaeological evidence, textual sources, and linguistic analysis all point to Aksum as a sophisticated indigenous African civilization that exerted significant influence throughout the Red Sea region.
The kingdom's early adoption of Christianity, its intervention in Arabian affairs, and its distinctive cultural traditions all testify to its importance in late antique history. Modern scholarship increasingly recognizes Aksum not as a peripheral "colony" of other civilizations but as a major center of power and cultural innovation in its own right.
## References
1. Phillipson, D.W. (2012). *Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300*. James Currey.
2. Munro-Hay, S. (1991). *Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity*. Edinburgh University Press.
3. Fiaccadori, G. (2007). "Gregentius," in *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 2, pp. 889-891.
4. Bowersock, G.W. (2013). *The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam*. Oxford University Press.
5. Hatke, G. (2013). *Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa*. New York University Press.
6. Nosnitsin, D. (2010). "Kebra Nagast," in *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 3, pp. 364-368.
7. Trimingham, J.S. (1952). *Islam in Ethiopia*. Oxford University Press.
8. Sergew Hable Sellassie (1972). *Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270*. United Printers.
Beautiful, thanks for sharing. I am a Grok guy myself, but love to see what the other AI models can do. I am glad you pushed it to give you sources as well. I always encourage my students to do that when they use AI.
Off the topic, but... I learned of Axum first via the Flint & Weber Belisarius trilogy which has Axum and Axumites as central elements. Now, this is a work of fiction but how accurate do you find it's portrayal of Axum?
Fascinating. I took the liberty of consulting Claude.AI on your article, and got this response:—
# The Aksumite Church and Kingdom: A Revised Historical Perspective
Your inquiry touches upon one of the most fascinating yet understudied early Christian kingdoms that served as a crucial nexus between Africa, the Mediterranean world, and the Arabian Peninsula. The Aksumite perspective on their history presents a significant counternarrative to European historiography that has often mischaracterized the origins and nature of this sophisticated civilization.
## Origins and Identity
The endonym "Aksum" indeed has obscure origins, though linguistic evidence suggests indigenous African roots rather than Arabian importation. Edward Gibbon's characterization reflects the Eurocentric biases of 18th-century historiography, which struggled to reconcile African civilizations with their preconceived notions of cultural development.
H.E. Negash's critique correctly identifies the fundamental error in Gibbon's account. Archaeological and linguistic evidence strongly supports the view that Aksum represented an indigenous African civilization with its own cultural traditions. The Ge'ez language, while Semitic, shows distinctive features that suggest a long independent development rather than recent importation.
Recent scholarship by Phillipson (2012) has demonstrated that the material culture of Aksum shows continuity with earlier indigenous developments in the Ethiopian highlands, particularly in monumental architecture and agricultural practices. The famous stelae of Aksum represent a uniquely African architectural tradition without direct parallels in Arabia.
## Aksumite Christianity and Regional Influence
The Aksumite conversion to Christianity in the 4th century CE under King Ezana represents one of the earliest state adoptions of Christianity, predating many European conversions. The Aksumite church maintained distinctive liturgical and theological traditions that continue in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church today.
The account of Aksumite intervention in Ḥimyar (Yemen) deserves particular attention. The Jewish king Dhu Nuwas (Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar) did indeed persecute Christians in Najran around 523 CE, as attested in both Byzantine and Syriac sources. The Aksumite king Kaleb (also known as Ella Asbeha) intervened, defeating Dhu Nuwas and establishing an Aksumite presence in southern Arabia.
This intervention is significant for several reasons:
1. It demonstrates the considerable military and naval capabilities of the Aksumite kingdom
2. It reflects the kingdom's self-identification as a Christian power with responsibilities toward co-religionists
3. It challenges the conventional narrative of unidirectional cultural influence from Arabia to Africa
The Martyrs of Najran are commemorated in the Ethiopian Synaxarium on Ḥedār 24, and their story is preserved in multiple ancient sources, including the "Book of the Himyarites" and John of Ephesus's "Ecclesiastical History."
## Queen of Sheba Tradition
The reference to the Queen of Sheba as a legitimizing ancestral figure for Aksumite rulers is particularly significant. This tradition, embodied in the Ethiopian national epic Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings), represents a sophisticated political theology that connected Ethiopia to biblical history.
While modern scholarship cannot confirm the historical veracity of the Queen of Sheba narrative, its cultural significance cannot be overstated. The tradition provided Aksumite and later Ethiopian rulers with a claim to Solomonic descent and positioned Ethiopia as a chosen nation within salvation history.
In the Kebra Nagast, the Queen of Sheba (Makeda in Ethiopian tradition) bears Solomon a son, Menelik I, who later brings the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. This narrative served to establish Ethiopia as a new Israel, a concept that resonated powerfully with Ethiopian Christian self-understanding.
## Aksumite Influence on Arabia
The account of Aksumite colonization of southern Arabia is supported by archaeological evidence. Aksumite coins and inscriptions have been found in Yemen, and South Arabian inscriptions record the presence of Aksumite governors. This period of Aksumite control lasted until the Persian Sasanian conquest around 570 CE.
The fall of Aksumite control in Arabia roughly coincides with the birth of Muhammad, suggesting that Ethiopian Christianity may have been one of the religious influences on early Islam. The Quran itself mentions Christian Ethiopia positively, and the Prophet Muhammad is said to have instructed his early followers to seek refuge in Ethiopia from persecution in Mecca, reportedly stating, "Go to Abyssinia, for there is a king who permits no one to be wronged."
## Conclusion
The Aksumite perspective on their history, as articulated by scholars like Negash, represents an important corrective to earlier Eurocentric narratives. Archaeological evidence, textual sources, and linguistic analysis all point to Aksum as a sophisticated indigenous African civilization that exerted significant influence throughout the Red Sea region.
The kingdom's early adoption of Christianity, its intervention in Arabian affairs, and its distinctive cultural traditions all testify to its importance in late antique history. Modern scholarship increasingly recognizes Aksum not as a peripheral "colony" of other civilizations but as a major center of power and cultural innovation in its own right.
## References
1. Phillipson, D.W. (2012). *Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300*. James Currey.
2. Munro-Hay, S. (1991). *Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity*. Edinburgh University Press.
3. Fiaccadori, G. (2007). "Gregentius," in *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 2, pp. 889-891.
4. Bowersock, G.W. (2013). *The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam*. Oxford University Press.
5. Hatke, G. (2013). *Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa*. New York University Press.
6. Nosnitsin, D. (2010). "Kebra Nagast," in *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, vol. 3, pp. 364-368.
7. Trimingham, J.S. (1952). *Islam in Ethiopia*. Oxford University Press.
8. Sergew Hable Sellassie (1972). *Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270*. United Printers.
Beautiful, thanks for sharing. I am a Grok guy myself, but love to see what the other AI models can do. I am glad you pushed it to give you sources as well. I always encourage my students to do that when they use AI.
Off the topic, but... I learned of Axum first via the Flint & Weber Belisarius trilogy which has Axum and Axumites as central elements. Now, this is a work of fiction but how accurate do you find it's portrayal of Axum?
PS I found your substack via your comments on Razib Khan's substack...
nice Razib is great.
I am not familiar with it. Tell me more avout this work and I can say what aligns.